TfY Exercise Chapter 1-12

TfY Chapter 1

Quiz p.38- Observation Skills: What's out There?


1. Observation skills are learned mainly through book learning. Support for Answers. On the contrary, observation is learned from participation, which is more active and spontaneous than reading. Samuel Scudder learned observing through the active coaching of his teacher Agassiz as well as from his own efforts, curiosity, and persistence in studying his fish.
False

2. The standard academic study of all the physical sciences requires observation skills, whether in the field or laboratory. True

3. In thinking, the correctness of our conclusions usually depends on the clarity of our perceptions.
True

4. Observation skills can be extended to observing how you observe.
True

5. An insight is an experience of understanding that can occur spontaneously after we observe something intently for a while. One illustration of this experience is the story of Archimedes, who, while in his bath, discovered the means of measuring the value of an irregular solid by the displacement of water.
True

6. Agassize was simply too busy to give his student all the assistance he needed.
False

7. Perception and sensation are synonyms.
True

8. It is difficult to feel sensation and to think at the same time. If we want to feel whether a pair of new shoes fits properly, we have to pay attention.
True

9. Assimilation, according to Piaget, is an experience of easily understanding something that readily fits into our preexisting schemes or world view.
True

10. The word thinking, according to the dictionary, has only one meaning.
False



TfY Chapter 2

Discovery Exercises p.46 - Word Precision: How Do I describe It?


1. Dictionaries are like phone books; basically, they all offer the same information.
False

2. If a dictionary is named Webster's, that means it is one of the best.
False

3. Exports who decide how we should speak English write dictionaries.
False

4. Small, pocket dictionaries are the best kind to use for in-depth word study because they eliminate unnecessary, confusing information and make understanding easier.
False

5. Since a dictionary can confuse us with so many definitions for any single word, it is better to try to figure out a word's meaning from its context or are someone else.
False

6. Dictionaries are like cookbooks; a family needs to buy only one for the family's lifetime.
False

7. Dictionaries gives us information about spelling and definitions, but that is about all they offer. 
False



TfY Chapter 3

Discovery Exercises p.75- Facts: What Real?

Definition:

Know: be cognizant or aware of a fact or a specific piece of information; possess knowledge or information about; know how to do or perform something.

Certain: certain(a): definite but not specified or identified;
certain(p): having or feeling no doubt or uncertainty;
certain(p): established beyond doubt or question; definitely known.

Verified: corroborated: supported or established by evidence or proof.

Existence: being: the state or fact of existing; is an ontological topic par excellence.

Real: being or occurring in fact or actuality; having verified existence; not illusory.

Fact: a piece of information about circumstances that exist or events that have occurred.



TfY Chapter 4

Discovery Exercise p.108- Inferences: What Follows?


Reasoning- act of using reason to derive a conclusion from certain premises. There are two main methods to reach a conclusion. One is deductive reasoning, in which given true premises, the conclusion must follow (the conclusion cannot be false). This sort of reasoning is non-ampliative - it does not increase one's knowledge base, since the conclusion is self-contained in the premises. A classical example of deductive reasoning are syllogism.

Conclusion- decision: a position or opinion or judgment reached after consideration; "a decision unfavorable to the opposition"; "his conclusion took the evidence into account"; "satisfied with the panel's determination"; an intuitive assumption; "jump to a conclusion".

Guess- think: expect, believe, or suppose; put forward, of a guess, in spite of possible refutation.

Explanation- a statement that makes something comprehensible by describing the relevant structure or operation or circumstances etc.

Imagine- form a mental image of something that is not present or that is not the case.

Infer-deduce: reason by deduction; establish by deduction.

Inference- the reasoning involved in drawing a conclusion or making a logical judgment on the basis of circumstantial evidence and prior conclusions rather than on the basis of direct observation.

Interpret- make sense of; assign a meaning to; "What message do you see in this letter?"; "How do you interpret his behavior?"



TfY Chapter 5

Discovery Exercise p.149- Assumptions: What's Taken for Granted?

What Is an Assumption?

Assumptions-premise: a statement that is assumed to be true and from which a conclusion can be drawn; "on the assumption that he has been injured we can infer that he will not to play"; a hypothesis that is taken for granted; "any society is built upon certain assumptions" the act of taking possession of or power over something; "his assumption of office coincided with the trouble in Cuba"; "the Nazi assumption of power in 1934"; "he acquired all the company's assets for ten million dollars and the assumption of the company's debts"



TfY Chapter 6

Quiz p.190- Opinions: What's Believed?

1. Expert opinion calculates the risk involved in spacing the gap between the known and the unknown for a particular situation.
True

2. Giving advice is not a way of offering an opinion. False

3. The result of public opinion polls are equivalent to votes in elections.
False

4. Opinions in the forms of judgments state what is right and wrong, bed and good.
True

5. Some opinion are based on generalizations, such as stereotype, as in the statement " All Chinese look alike."
True

6. Responsible opinions are based on a careful examination of the evidence.
False

7. Opinion are the same as facts.
False

8. Gossip is opinion sharing without any requirement for substantiation.
True

9. Everyone is entitled to his or her own opinion because all opinion carry equal value. 
False

10. Prevailing sentiment refers to popular opinion that changes with the times.
True



TfY Chapter 7

Discovery Exercises p.196- Evaluations: What's Judged?


Judge- determine the result of (a competition), a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice.

Appraise- to estimate the value of real estate.

Estimate- an approximate calculation of quantity or degree or worth; "an estimate of what it would cost"; "a rough idea how long it would take".

Value- a numerical quantity measured or assigned or computed; the quality (positive or negative) that renders something desirable or valuable.

Evaluate- In this final stage of multimedia development, the focus is on evaluating the presentations effectiveness in light of its purpose and the assessment context.



TfY Chapter 8

Discovery Exercises p.220- Viewpoints: What's the Filter?


Viewpoint: The position of the camera in relation to the subject.

Point of view: the perspective from which a story is told.

Attitude: a complex mental state involving beliefs and feelings and values and dispositions to act in certain ways.

Bias: influence in an unfair way, a partiality that prevents objective consideration of an issue or situation.

Perspective: Perspective may mean: Literally, in visual topics:
Perspective (visual), is the way in which objects appear to the eye. Perspective (graphical), means to represent the effects of visual perspective in drawings.

Frame of reference: A frame of reference is a particular perspective from which the universe is observed. Specifically, in physics, it refers to a provided set of axes from which an observer can measure the position and motion of all points in a system, as well as the orientation of objects in it.

Opinion: a personal belief or judgment that is not founded on proof or certainty.



TfY Chapter 9

Exercise p.259- Argument: What is Deductive Reasoning?


1. Student who want well-paying careers upon graduation should (R)train themselves to be computer programmers. (C)Most cities are full of advertisements for computer programmers.

2. By the study of different religions (R)we find that in essence they are one. All are concerned with revelations or breakthrough experiences that can (C)redirect lives and empower them toward good.

3. (R)I am not pro-abortion at all. I think that people nowadays use abortion as an essay from of both control. (C)It's also against my religion.

4. (R)Guns kill people; that's why handguns should be banned.(C)

5. (R)Deep fat frying can greatly increase the calories of foods such as fish, chicken, and potatoes. Therefore, (C)it is better to bake, boil, or steam foods.

6. " It is important that (R)individual citizens equip themselves with a baloney detection kit to determine whether politiciand, scientists, or religious leaders are lying-it's an important part of becoming a citizen of the world."(C)

7. (R)America should put a freeze on immigration. Its first duty is to take better care of its own disadvantaged, poor, and unemployed.(C)

8. (R)America boasts about its wealth and prosperity as the world's most competitive economy. Yet its citizens are told there is not enough money for health care, environmental protection, for parks, safety nets for the poor and elderly, or public funding for the arts(C). Isn't there something wrong with this picture?

9. (R)"If nothing happened, if nothing changed, time would stop. For time is nothing but change. It is change that we perceive occurring all around us, not time. In fact, time doesn't exist."(C)

10. (R)I don't know drink because alcohol gives me a brief high followed by a longer depression.(C)



TfY Chapter 10

Class Discussion p.294- Fallacies: What's a Faulty Argument?


1. (1)TV can't be harmful to children, (2)because it occupies their attention for hours and keep them off the streets. (take from S. Morris Engel's With Good Reason, St. Martin's Press, 1982)

2. (1)Those who are so ferociously involved in Mothers Against Drunk Driving would (2)better spend their time in working with A.A. to help alcoholics.

3.(2)Why are you always nagging at me(1)about the way I drive?

4. (1)Person A:I oppose school voucher programs because they undermine the public school system and give subsidies to rich families who can already afford to send their children to private schools. (2)Person B: I am not going to engage in class warfare. The real issue here is opportunity.



TfY Chapter 11

Exercise p.303- Inductive Reasoning and Inductive Fallacies: How Do I Reason from Evidence?


1. Induction: Is an argument the truth of whose premises would not serve to guarantee the truth of its conclusion, yet would provide some evidence for it. Sometimes said to be "inductively but not deductively valid".

2. Reasoning: Is the act of using reason to derive a conclusion from certain premises. There are two main methods to reach a conclusion. One is deductive reasoning, in which given true premises, the conclusion must follow (the conclusion cannot be false). This sort of reasoning is non-ampliative - it does not increase one's knowledge base, since the conclusion is self-contained in the premises. A classical example of deductive reasoning are syllogism.

3. Empirical: Refers to that which is based on observation or experience rather than on theory.

4. Scientific methods: Is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It is based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning, the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.

5.Inductive reasoning: A type of type of mathematical reasoning which involves observing patterns and using those observations to make generalizations.



TfY Chapter 12

Exercise p.348- Deductive Reasoning: How Do I Reason from premises?

Definition:

Deduction: an amount or percentage deducted; something that is inferred deduced or entailed or implied; reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect); subtraction: the act of subtracting (removing a part from the whole); discount: the act of reducing the selling price of merchandise.

Deductive logic: Deductive reasoning is the kind of reasoning in which the conclusion is necessitated by, or reached from, previously known facts (the premises). If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. This is distinguished from abductive and inductive reasoning, where the premises may predict a high probability of the conclusion, but do not ensure that the conclusion is true.

Reasoning: is the mental (cognitive) process of looking for reasons to support beliefs, conclusions, actions or feelings.


Thinking for Yourself

[Chapter 8-12]

Thinking for Yourself- Chapter 12

Chapter 12

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is the process of starting with one or more statements called premises and investigating what conclusions necessarily follow from these premises.
Deduction is taught through the study of formal logic, or the science of good reasoning.
The standardized language of syllogisms allows a reduction of everyday language into verbal equations.
Syllogisms allow logicians to determine what is being said, to identify hidden premises, and to find out if the argument makes sense.

Thinking for Yourself- Chapter 11

Chapter 11

Inductive Reasoning and Inductive Fallacies

Inductive reasoning is a method used to discover new information or to supply missing information. When we use inductive reasoning, we observe, test, and check things out in some systematic fashion. The inductive method is also called the empirical or scientific method.
Induction can be done through sensory observation, enumeration, analogous reasoning, causal reasoning, and from pattern recognition.
Inductive reasoning is used as a method for obtaining information when it would be impossible to examine all the data available. This is done by taking statistical samplings or by making extrapolations.
Hasty generalization is the fallacy of basing a conclusion on insufficient evidence.
The either-or fallacy, or false dilemma, is an argument that oversimplifies a situation, asserting that there are only two choices, when actually other alternatives exist.
Inconsistency in evidence is the fallacy of offering evidence that contradicts the conclusion.The slippery slope is the fallacy of claiming without sufficient proof that permitting one event to occur would lead to a chain reaction that could not be stopped. It ignores the many variables or unknowns in the situation

Thinking for Yourself- Chapter 10

Chapter 10

Fallacies: What’s a Faulty Argument?

Word ambiguity uses undefined and vague words in an argument, seeking to gain an advantage by using words that could be interpreted in more than one way.
Misleading euphemisms are words that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations. The use of euphemisms is fallacious I an argument when the goal is to be evasive, to mislead, or to disarm awareness and objections.
Prejudicial language persuade through the use of loaded words that convey a bias while pretending to convey objective information.
Appeal to false authority seeks to influence others by citing phoney or inappropriate authorities. This false authority might be a person, a tradition, or conventional wisdom.
Appeal to bandwagon is another example of the appeal to authority. In this case, the authority is the exhilarating momentum of the herd instinct.
Personal attack refutes another argument by attacking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. This fallacy can take the form of using abusive language or name-calling.
Poisoning the well seeks to prejudice others against a person, group, or idea and prevent their positions from being heard. This technique seeks to remove the neutrality necessary for listening and to implant prejudice instead.
The red herring is a ploy of distraction. It makes a claim, then instead of following through with support, it minimizes the issue or/ diverts attention into irrelevant issues.
The straw man is an argument that misrepresents, oversimplifies, or caricatures an opponent’s position; it creates a false replica, and then destroys the replica.
Pointing to another wrong are also called two wrongs make a right. It says, “Don’t look at me; he did it too!”
Circular reasoning is the assertion or repeated assertion of a conclusion as though the conclusion were a reason. It can also pretend that no supporting reasons are needed.

Thinking for Yourself- Chapter 9

Chapter 9

Argument

The critical reading of arguments is an active endeavor that requires involvement, interaction with questions, and evaluation.
What an argument first needs is an objective reading or hearing. Afterwards criticism can begin with five questions:
a) What viewpoint is the source of this argument?
b) What is the issue of controversy?
c) Is it an argument or a report?
d) How is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusions?
e) What are the argument’s strengths and weaknesses?
The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive and deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, and premises, while conclusions include those deductively drawn as well as hypotheses.
The following questions can serve as guidelines for analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of arguments:
a) Are the reasons adequate to support the conclusion?
b) Are there any hidden assumptions?
c) Are any central words ambiguous or slanted so as to incite prejudice?
d) Are there fallacies of reasoning?
e) Is any important information missing?
f) Is any information false or contradictory?

Thinking for Yourself- Chapter 8

Chapter 8

Viewpoints

The ability to detach from one’s own point of view and assume another’s is an important skill; it enables us to communicate better with others and gain new perspectives.
In literature an author can choose a third person to tell the story with omniscient or limited understanding. Other choices of viewpoint include a first-person narrative told by character or the multiple points of view shared by several characters.
Viewpoints, like assumptions, opinions, and evaluations, may or may not be consciously recognized.
Unconscious viewpoints include the egocentric, ethnocentric, religiocentric, andocentric, and anthropocentric.
U.S. politics cannot be defined in terms of a simple left-to-left spectrum of viewpoints.
News framing describes the way an editor uses layout design, placement, and headlines to sensationalize, downplay, exaggerate, or convey importance.